It is true that the Arabs were the first Muslim invaders of India, as we discussed earlier in the article “Muhammad bin Qasim.” However, their invasion remained only an initial episode in Indian history. The work that the Arabs began was later continued and expanded by the Turks.

During the 8th and 9th centuries, the Turks seized power from the Abbasid Caliphs of Baghdad. The Turks were fierce and warlike people — greedy for wealth and women — and were driven by a desire to expand their empire.

The first Turkish invader associated with the Muslim conquest of India was Alptageen. He was originally a slave of Abdul Malik, the ruler of Bukhara. Through his hard work, he rose to the position of Habib-ul-Hajjaj and, in 956 CE, was entrusted with the governorship of Khorasan.

After Abdul Malik’s death in 962 CE, a struggle broke out for the throne between his brother and his uncle. Alptageen supported the uncle, but Abdul Malik’s brother, Mansoor, succeeded in taking the throne. In these circumstances, Alptageen left with 800 personal soldiers and settled in Ghazni, a region of Afghanistan, where he established his control over the city and its neighboring territories.

After Alptageen’s death in 977 CE, a new conflict arose for power. Eventually, Subuktageen became the ruler of Ghazni. He too had begun life as a slave, brought from Turkistan to Bukhara, where Alptageen purchased him. Recognizing his intelligence and ability, Alptageen promoted him to higher and higher ranks and eventually married his daughter to him.

Once on the throne, Subuktageen began a series of conquests that made him famous throughout the eastern world. He captured Sistan and Lamghan, and after several years of continuous warfare, conquered the province of Khorasan in 964 CE.

Subuktageen was ambitious, greedy, and expansionist in nature. His eyes soon turned toward India — a land rich in gold, temples, and idols.

His first encounter was with Raja Jayapala of the Hindu Shahi dynasty, whose kingdom stretched from Sirhind to Lamghan (Jalalabad) and from Kashmir to Multan. In 986–87 CE, Subuktageen invaded the Indian frontier for the first time and captured many forts and cities “where previously no Muslim had ever set foot, and where the horses and camels of Muslims had never desecrated the land.”

Jayapala could not tolerate this insult. He gathered his army and advanced toward the Lamghan valley, where Subuktageen and his son Mahmud of Ghazni awaited him. The battle raged for several days. When Jayapala’s forces began to weaken, he sent a message proposing peace.

Subuktageen was willing to accept the peace treaty, but Mahmud opposed it, saying that for the honor of Islam and the Muslims, the battle must not cease. He addressed his father in these words:

“You must not beg for peace, for you are supreme and Allah is with you; He will never let you be defeated.”

Despite his initial defeat, Jayapala sent another message:

“You have already seen how Hindus risk their lives and jump into battle. If you still reject our offer of peace in the hope of more loot, gifts, elephants, and captives, then we will have no choice but to destroy all our possessions, blind our elephants, throw our families and children into fire, and attack each other with swords and spears. After that, only stones, corpses, and scattered bones will remain for you.”

After receiving this message, Subuktageen agreed to the peace terms. Jayapala promised to pay ten lakh dirhams, fifty elephants, and to surrender certain forts and cities. To ensure his sincerity, he sent two representatives to Subuktageen.

Mahmud’s minister, Al-Utbi, wrote in Tarikh-e-Yamini:

“The Sultan advanced toward the city of Lamghan, renowned for its great strength and immense wealth. He conquered it and set fire to the nearby places where non-Muslims (Kafirs) lived. He destroyed idol temples and converted them into mosques. Advancing further, he captured other towns, slaughtered the infidels, and glorified Islam.”

It is said that when Jayapala found himself somewhat free from immediate danger, he violated the treaty and imprisoned Subuktageen’s officers. Enraged, Subuktageen marched back swiftly to take revenge, ravaged Jayapala’s frontier provinces, and captured the city of Lamghan.

When Jayapala saw his generals being slaughtered and his power declining, he resolved to fight the Muslims again. In 991 CE, he formed an alliance with the rulers of Ajmer, Kalinjar, and Kannauj, gathering an army of more than one lakh (100,000) soldiers to confront the Turks.

A fierce battle ensued, but the Hindu kings were ultimately defeated. In the end, Jayapala agreed to offer rich gifts from his distant provinces on the condition that the Muslims would not cut off the sacred topknots (shikhas) of the Hindus.

Subuktageen obtained immense booty, including 200 war elephants. Jayapala offered many gifts and accepted defeat. Subuktageen appointed one of his officers in Peshawar with a force of 10,000 cavalry.

In 997 CE, Subuktageen died, leaving behind a vast and well-organized empire for his son, Mahmud of Ghazni.

Thus, by defeating Raja Jayapala, the Turkish ruler Subuktageen established the foundation of Islamic power in parts of India.