Crucifixion, as a method of execution, is widely believed to have originated in the first millennium BCE, with the earliest historical evidence dating to around 500 BCE. It was employed by various ancient Near Eastern cultures and later became infamous through Roman use. Notably, it was not a known practice in ancient Egypt during the eras traditionally associated with the biblical figures Joseph (circa 2000 BCE) and Moses (circa 1500 BCE). Yet, the Qur’an makes repeated references to crucifixion being used by the Egyptian pharaohs during these very periods—raising serious historical and textual questions.
Crucifixion in the Qur’an
Two verses in particular describe crucifixion as a punishment enacted by Pharaoh:
“O two companions of the prison, as for one of you, he will serve wine to his master, but as for the other, he will be crucified, and the birds will eat from his head. The matter about which you inquire has been decreed.”
— Qur’an 12:41
“(Pharaoh) said: ‘Do you believe in him before I give you permission? Indeed, he is your leader who has taught you magic. I will surely cut off your hands and feet on opposite sides, and I will crucify you on the trunks of palm trees. Then you will know whose punishment is more severe and lasting.'”
— Qur’an 20:71
These verses, describing punishments involving crucifixion and cross-amputation, are attributed to Pharaohs who, according to mainstream Egyptology, would not have employed such methods. The earliest confirmed instances of crucifixion occurred centuries later, outside of Egypt.
Archaeological and Historical Evidence
While Egyptian iconography and hieroglyphic records do depict impalement on stakes, this practice is fundamentally different from crucifixion. Impalement involves piercing a victim through the body vertically, often with a single stake, whereas crucifixion typically involves nailing or binding a person to a cross-like structure—sometimes a tree, but more often a constructed cross—with outstretched limbs.
Furthermore, the specific reference to crucifixion on palm trunks in the Qur’an poses practical and symbolic inconsistencies. Palm trees, due to their thick girth and height, would be highly impractical for such a method, and there is no archaeological evidence supporting their use in this manner in pharaonic Egypt.
Misapplication of Terms?
The same Arabic verb for crucifixion is used in Qur’an 4:157, in reference to the alleged crucifixion of Jesus. Elsewhere, the Pharaoh is called “the lord of the stakes” (Qur’an 38:12 and 89:10), which some commentators have attempted to connect to impalement or even misinterpret as crucifixion. However, in context—particularly in Qur’an 89:6–11—the phrase appears to reference monumental constructions, such as obelisks or columns, rather than methods of execution.
A Retrojection of Later Practices?
The Qur’anic punishments attributed to Pharaoh—including cross-amputation (cutting off opposite hand and foot)—also lack any corroboration in ancient Egyptian penal tradition. In fact, the pairing of crucifixion with mutilation reflects later Islamic legal practices, as outlined in Qur’an 5:33, which prescribes similar punishments for crimes such as treason or spreading corruption. This suggests a possible retrojection—where contemporary 7th-century Arabian penal practices were projected anachronistically into much earlier historical contexts.
Conclusion
The Qur’anic portrayal of crucifixion and cross-amputation as practices used by the ancient Egyptian pharaohs stands in clear contradiction with what is known from historical and archaeological records. These verses appear to incorporate methods of punishment that did not exist in the periods being described, raising questions about the historical accuracy of the Qur’anic narrative. Whether this results from a lack of historical knowledge or serves a symbolic or rhetorical function, it remains a notable point of contention for those critically analyzing the text.
